Investigative Tools and Equipment for Crime Scenes

Investigative Tools and Equipment for Crime Scenes Homicides are punishable criminal acts that involve the killing of an individual by another person. Homicide cases can be either intentional or unintentional. Voluntary homicides are premeditated with the intent to kill such as murders, whilst unintentional homicides occur by mistake or negligence as in cases of fatal traffic accidents. However, these are tackled using the same investigative approach which comprises in using the correct apparatus and techniques to collect evidence from the crime scene, in filing of reports, in conducting searches, in interviewing witnesses and in interrogating suspects in order to arrest, prosecute and punish the offender. Investigative tools and equipment To help the investigator in collecting all available evidence, a list of apparatus that is necessary to keep all proof intact and clean are brought on the crime scene. Universal Precautions such as a disinfectant and disposable gloves, jumpsuits, hair covers, shoe covers, purification masks, and face shields are important to help the investigator in safely touching the environment without tampering evidence and leaving fingerprints. An investigative notebook and stationary such as pens, markers, and pencils are also needed for writing down scene notes. Time reading is very important during the collecting of data such as time of arrival so a wristwatch would be ideal. Official identification of the investigator is also necessary since not everyone is allowed within a crime scene enclosed by crime scene tapes and barrier sheeting (Reno, Marcus, Robinson, Brennan, Travis, 1999). Body bags are brought to the scene to remove the body of the deceased safely from site and ID tags along with evidence seals are attached before removal from site. Cameras are needed to provide visual evidence for later study and measurement instruments such as tape and rulers are needed to record specific lengths or distances. Special containers such as specimen containers are needed to carry and preserve blood, general fluids, and other evidence items to the laboratory. Medical equipment kits are useful for gathering evidence that are complicated to obtain such as scissors to cut clothing samples or cotton-tipped swabs for picking out fluid samples. A trace evidence kit, a first aid kit, a latent print kit, a gunshot residue kit, a blood test kit, a thermometer, local maps, a pair of boots, portable lighting, and reflective vests, are some other important tools for the investigator. Finally, some basic hand tools such as screwdrivers, hammers, shovels, paintbrushes, and bolt cutter s can help investigators to access areas thoroughly (Reno et al., 1999). The Investigation Process Analysing the crime scene The first responder to arrive at the crime scene is usually a police officer and is in charge of the preliminary investigation. S/he has the responsibility of checking whether the suspect is still armed at the crime scene or in the surrounding area. The first responder must render medical assistance to any injured persons and be prepared to write down notes in case of any dying declarations. In case of the latter, the police officer must ask the right questions (such as built, race, hair and eye colour, clothing ect) to try to determine who the culprit is. Afterwards when the dead body is located, death must be confirmed. Thus, the victims pulse, respiration, and reflexes must be checked. Any witnesses should be identified and asked for personal details such as name, address, and mobile/telephone numbers so that they may be contacted later for investigative purposes. It is important that witnesses be separated in order to avoid discussion of the event of crime and thus, contamination of individual accounts of events (Truro Police Department, 2004). The next vital step is to note all weather and environmental conditions, and to protect the crime scene and the evidence found in it until the investigation team arrives on site. This is done by isolating the crime scene from unauthorised persons and by verifying that no evidence is touched prior to the investigation teams arrival on site. The first responder should also establish physical boundaries, park vehicles securely and safely, remove any animals from site, and control traffic. Scene safety is important for all the people involved in the investigation therefore such environmental and physical threats that can cause injury must be removed prior to the crime scene investigation. However, this should be done without damaging and contaminating the integrity of the scene and the evidence. In addition, it is important that the first responder keep a record of all the people that visit the scene, and only allow persons who are needed in the investigation (Reno et al., 1999). Once the investigation team arrives on site, the first responder must report the details to them as accurately and fully as possible. Each member of the investigation team is assigned a specific task to make sure that all the area is covered adequately and to save time. A scene walkthrough should also be established so that entry and exits paths, physical and fragile evidence, and the deceased are identifiable. Depending on the number of investigators, a spiral, grid, linear, or quadrant pattern should be walked so that no area is left unsearched and location of evidence should be marked, photographed. and sketched. This is also essential to avoid alteration and contamination of fragile evidence that includes blood, body fluids (froths, substances from orifices ect), hair, fibres, and fragile evidence that is easily contaminated, lost, or modified. It is important that photographs and sketches indicate the location and patterns of all evidence that is to be collected, preserved, tran sported, and documented so that it can be admissible in court (Reno et al., 1999). An accurate rough sketch of the crime scene containing the case number, location, and case name, can serve as a map to indicate the position and location of the body and any other evidence. All objects should be tied-measured according to stationary landmarks and measurements of the scene taken. A North indication is always appropriate to help understand the general layout of the sketch. If possible, a scale should be included to help calculate distances and sizes of objects. If the crimes scene is indoors, apertures and furniture should be included, whilst if the crime scene is outdoors, trees, fences, vehicles, or any other structures are to be sketched. Afterwards a finalised and accurate version of the sketch is to be drawn so that it can be presented in court. This can also be drawn using computer design software (Bertino, n.d.). Photographic scene documentation helps in providing instant and permanent images of the scene that can be used to recreate the crime and when in doubt about certain details in the report, witness statements, and position of evidence. It is important to include a wide-angle view of the crime scene in order to make the location identifiable. Photographs should be provided with scales and taken at different angles to provide different views of areas. Triangulation of stationary objects should also be included in the photos as reference points. This will also help to uncover any additional evidence that is not noticed by the naked eye (Reno et al., 1999). In addition, photographs with and without measurements, of the initial position of the body, the face of the deceased, objects removed, and the terrain beneath the body should be taken. This is essential to keep record of the position, appearance, clothing, identity, marks and scars, injuries, and final movements of the victim. A detailed record of the evidence such as weapons, cartridge cases, footprints ect, and any necessary measurements along with its relationship to the body should be taken. Volume, patterns, spatters, and other characteristics of blood and body fluids should also be recorded. This also applies for any odours, lights, temperatures, and other fragile evidence. It is important to note that whilst performing these tasks the condition of the body and evidence should never be moderated. Fingerprints, dental, radiographic, and DNA comparisons; personal belongings; photos of tattoos and physical characteristics can all aid in the investigation as these can lead to rela tives if identification of the body is made (Reno et al., 1999). The cause, manner, and time of death can all be determined from post mortem changes such as state of livor mortis and rigor mortis, degree of decomposition, insect and animal bites, and the difference between the temperature of the body and the environment. Documenting such details can help the investigator realise when the witness statements are corroborated and when the body of the dead was transported from a primary location. When the location of death is different from the place where the body is found, it is important for the investigation team to find such a place. Determining the location of death is important to discover how the body was transported to the secondary scene. This can be found by searching on the body and clothes of the deceased and for any drag marks and post-injury marks (Reno et al., 1999). A record of the details of the person/s who discovered the body; the details of where, when and how the discovery was made; and the details of what was exactly was discovered is also necessary for the subsequent investigation and judicial processes. Documenting pre-terminal medical and mental records, and possible incidents and symptoms prior to death and obtaining the relevant ante mortem specimens is essential to determine the deceaseds condition before death. These also help in distinguishing between medical treatment/disease and trauma/injury, and thus determine the cause and manner of death. Marital, family, sexual, educational, employment and financial information, as well as any routines, habits, friends and associates of the dead all help to develop a profile of the deceased that will aid in establishing the cause and manner of death (Reno et al., 1999). Furthermore, the investigation team is also in charge of making sure that the body is protected from further trauma and/or contamination; that all belongings and clothing of the dead victim are properly inventoried, that all evidence items are identified; that all blood and/or vitreous samples are collected; that the body in the body bag is correctly identified and removed from the scene; and that all of these are securely transported to the adequate laboratories and examining agencies. It is also the investigation teams responsibility to notify all next of kin about the death of their relative and to record this (Reno et al., 1999). Documenting and arranging for the secure transportation of body from the scene for autopsy or storage, maintains jurisdiction and chain of custody over the body by the investigation team. In fact, jurisdiction is only released when the body is given to the funeral director. The next step is to perform exit procedures to make sure that: all evidence has been collected, that no materials used in the investigation were left behind; and that all dangerous items were reported. Finally, the family should be informed of any autopsy and support services, and be given a timetable of events such as that of the time of body release and when the test results will be available (Reno et al., 1999). Evidence Evidence can be either direct such as first hand observations of eyewitness testimonies and confessions or circumstantial. Circumstantial evidence is indirect evidence that may prove a link between the crime scene and the suspect. The latter can be divided into physical (fibres, weapons, bullets, shoe prints, blood) and biological evidence (body fluids, hair, plant parts, fingerprints and natural fibres). Biological evidence or individual evidence is many times preferred since this is likely to lead to a specific person, unlike physical evidence or class evidence that leads to a specific group of individuals (Bertino, n.d.). After the evidence is collected from the crime scene, it is usually sent to forensic laboratories to be examined more closely. Test results are important for reconstructing the crime-scene, this means creating a hypothesis to explain the sequence of events from before the commission of the crime to its commission. The investigator should then determine how the evidence fits into the crime and compare it to witnesses statements. Evidence analysis is essential to determine the reliability of such witnesses, to identify suspects, to release any imprisoned innocents, and to verify if the crime scene has been staged (Bertino, n.d.). Evidence such as fingerprints and biological samples from a crime scene can aid in the investigation especially if such biological information is loaded into a database. In this case, links between the new record and a pre-existing record can be established, thus ameliorating detection rates. Such information can then be used to arrest suspects and as evidence in court (Nuffield Council on Bioethics, 2007). Autopsy In cases where the cause and circumstances of death cannot be verified by the investigator or a doctor, the Magistrate in charge of the case may order an autopsy to be performed on the body by a forensic pathologist. An autopsy allows the examination of the dead person both from the outside and inside. This is done to examine any structural alterations, injuries, toxicological substances, and any other biological material such as blood, saliva, semen, and urine to find out the identity of the person and the cause, time and circumstances of death (Chapter 8, n.d.). Searches Sometimes in the investigation of a crime, searches in buildings, vehicles, and other locations as well as on persons must be conducted in order to look for and seize suspicious evidence. Such searches should always be conducted after the issue of a warrant from a Magistrate (Criminal Code Chapter 9, Articles 355E, and 355L (2)). Interviews Witness interviews can be a good source of information for the investigation. Witness interviews should not interfere with human rights. In order to get as much information out of the witnesses as possible, the investigator should interview the witnesses as close to the event as possible to avoid the forgetting of certain details. It is better to create a favourable atmosphere to conduct the interview in order to make the witness as comfortable as possible. Calming down excited and upset persons and conducting the interview in a private and quiet area is also beneficial. During the interview, the investigator must write down notes unless video recording the whole conversation. Although spoken words are important, the investigator must also understand and record any body movements, emotional outbursts, and/or any sudden silence, as these can mean that further probing or clarification is needed on specific topics (Truro Police Department, 2004). Since witnesses can turn out to be the culprits, investigators must be careful not to reveal important case information. Furthermore, it is also important not to ask close-ended questions so that the person is encouraged to open up to the interviewer. In fact when faced with a shy or reluctant witness, the investigator should try to persuade the individual to be truthful and to appear in court. Putting words in the mouth of the witness by asking leading questions and interrupting the witness constantly during the interview is also wrong since this could result in the witness narrating what the interrogator said rather than his/her account of events (New Mexico Survivors of Homicide, Inc.; Official website of the San Jose Police Department). Interrogations Prior to the interrogation, Miranda warnings must be given to the suspect in an unhurried manner and in a way that s/he fully understands his/her constitutional rights. When an advocate is requested by the suspect, the interrogator must wait for such a person to arrive before initiating the interrogation. In cases of language barriers, underage persons, mental infirmity, influence of drugs or alcohol, wounds, and shock, waivers of Miranda warnings may be suppressed (Truro Police Department, 2004). The interrogation of a suspect may be the only chance for the investigator to obtain an admission or confession. Thus, the investigator must establish a good rapport with the suspect regardless of the type of crime committed and the lack of remorse shown by the suspect. This means that no type of coercion, threatening behaviour or bribes shall be used to obtain a confession (Official website of the San Jose Police Department). If the interrogator is lucky, s/he will get a voluntary confession that can be attained either in response to a question or by the free will of the suspect. In this case, the suspect should not be interrupted. On the other hand, if this is not the case, the interrogator should be tactful, patient, and reassuring whilst asking the questions. Furthermore, just like in witnesses interviews the interrogation is best conducted in a quiet and private room. Questions should be in simple and plain language, and asked consecutively without the use of sarcasm, interruptions, or suggestions of answers. A written record or video recording of all interrogations must be kept in all cases and must include the time and place of the interrogation and the names of the people present in the interrogation room (Truro Police Department, 2004). Reports In all stages of the investigation, the investigation team must keep a detailed report of each action undertaken in the course of the criminal investigation. All facts of the case must be reported since an investigation is only complete when it is accurately reported (New Mexico Survivors of Homicide, Inc.). An accurate report is important because without it, it is impossible to have a strong case against the suspect. All written records must include the name and identification number of the person taking action; the place, date and time of the action; details of the persons present; the case number; and the name of the suspect (Chapter 8, n.d.). The report must include a summary of facts in narrative form (so that the reader can see a clear picture of the event before reading the whole report); a list of evidence listed according to size and using consecutive numbers for separate items (include: what, where, and from whom the item was seized, where it is being stored, and any other specifications such as if the item was used for testing and by whom); any processes that have to do with the investigation such as lab testing and search warrants; a list of witnesses, their testimony and connection with the case; copies of preliminary and follow-up investigation reports; statements of victims and perpetrators; background of deceased and defendants; examination results; photos; and status reports. However, the report should not include opinions of the writer and any other irrelevant material (New Mexico Survivors of Homicide, Inc.). Follow-up investigations Sometimes the initial investigation is not enough to close the case and as a result, follow-up investigations need to be conducted. This is many times done after the case report is reviewed and the investigator realises that additional evidence is needed. A follow-up investigation may include: additional interviews and interrogations; reviews of previous case records, analysing laboratory test results; obtaining information from informants; conducting other crime scene searches; checking criminal records for potential culprits; identifying and capturing suspects; and assisting in court prosecutions (Truro Police Department, 2004). Arrests In cases where there is sufficient evidence that lead to one or more persons as being the perpetrators of the crime, the police have the right to arrest such person/s if in possession of an arrest warrant from the inquiring Magistrate. Arrests can be conducted inside or outside of a police station. However, if the arrest is performed outside the police station, the arrested should be taken to the nearest station and the inspector in charge must be informed (Criminal Code Chapter 9, Articles 355v, 355AE). Court processes Once the arrests are made and the investigation is complete, the investigator can present the case to the courts. If the evidence presented is sufficient and well organised to prove the guilt of a suspect beyond reasonable doubt, charges against the person are filed so that s/he will appear in court in front of a jury. On the other hand, if the evidence is not admissible in court, the case is rejected and dismissed. Therefore, it is in the hands of the investigator to compile a good casebook that will result in the prosecution and punishment of the culprit. After all this is the aim of an investigation to collect enough evidence, to identify and arrest the culprit, and to assist in the successful prosecution of the offender in a court of law (Official website of the San Jose Police Department). References (December 2012). New Mexico Survivors of Homicide, Inc. [On-line]. Retrieved from http://www.nmsoh.org/homicide_investigator_checklist.htm (December 2012). Official website of the San Jose Police Department [On-line]. Retrieved from http://www.sjpd.org/BOI/homicide/glimpse.html (n.d.). Chapter 8: Investigation of a criminal offense. Retrieved from http://www.usip.org/files/MC2/MC2-11-Ch8.pdf Bertino. (n.d.). Chapter 2: Crime-Scene investigation and evidence collection. Retrieved from http://www.cengagesites.com/academic/assets/sites/4827/bertino_chapter2.pdf Criminal Code. Chapter 9. Articles 355E, 355L (2), 355V, 355AE. Nuffield Council on Bioethics. (2007). Chapter 4: Criminal investigation. In The forensic use of bioinformation: ethical issues (pp. 37-61). London. Reno, J., Marcus, D., Robinson, L., Brennan, N., Travis, J. (1999). Death Investigation: A guide for the scene investigator. Washington DC: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs. Truro Police Department. (2004). Criminal investigation. Retrieved from http://www.truropolice.org/On%20Line%20Manuals/Criminal%20Investigations.pdf

Conflict and resolving issues sources of conflict and conflict resolution Essay

Hello everyone. My name is Isaac and welcome to my presentation. First of all I would like to give thanks to our honorable course instructor for organizing such a pretty session. Well, today the topic of my presentation is about conflict and resolving issues. So here I will discuss about conflict and resolving issues, sources of conflict and conflict resolution. Many people lead busy and challenging lives, so they encounter conflict on a daily basis and sometimes hourly basis at home or at work. As for the people who become engaged in conflict, they rarely have any or little understanding about the roots of conflicts or how to manage it when it happens. The entire other level that many people fail to understand is how regularly they encounter conflict and how difficult it can be to find a solution. As human we are regularly being placed in situations where conflict can occur and how we respond to it is grounded on different personalities. Conflict is an inevitable factor in our daily personal and professional lives. We are surrounded by conflict even if we may not recognize it. Usually we don’t like to experience conflict, although we enjoy watching others deal with it. For example, television shows highlight the fact that arguments, disputes, and disagreements are normal and a relevant part of life. Conflicts can result for various reasons, including miscommunication, differing values, relationship breakdowns and lack of information. In the workplace conflicts, divergent needs are usually at the heart of bitter disputes. A conflict can occur at any time when two or more people have a difference of opinion. Whether or not the conflict expands rely on the resolving skills of each person involved in the conflict and analyze the elements of conflict and resolving issues involved in the situation. While knowledge in resolving issues skills and negotiation tactics can result to successful conflict resolution, the outcome lies strictly in the hands and mental abilities of the conflict initiator. When you acknowledge the legitimacy of conflicting needs and become willing to analyze them in a surrounding of compassionate understanding, it open pathways to team building, creative problem solving and improved relationship. When you resolve conflict and disputes quickly and painlessly, mutual trust flourish. Basically, the capability to successfully manage and resolve conflicting issues rely on the four conflict resolution skills; swiftly relieve stress, recognizing and managing your emotions, improving your non verbal communication skills, and using humor and play to deal with problems. In conclusion,conflict is a normal and even healthy part of life. Furthermore, two people cannot be expected to agree on everything at all times. Resolving issues is an approach that we require all throughout our lives. Conflict is obviously unavoidable no matter what precautions are taken, but resolving issue is always possible if done correctly. Feelings of frustration may happen, but resolving conflict can make such a difference in our interpersonal relationships rather than just avoiding it. It may appear hard at times to resolve the conflict and reach a median, but in the end, regardless of the difficulty, it will be well worth it and will improve our performance. References Akgun, Serap, and Arzu Araz. â€Å"The Effects of Conflict Resolution Education on Conflict Resolution Skills, Social Competence, and Aggression in Turkish Elementary School Students.† Journal of Peace Education (2014): 30-45. Print. Nan, Susan Allen. â€Å"Consciousness in Culture-based Conflict and Conflict Resolution.† Conflict Resolution Quarterly (2012): 239-62. Print. Source document

Cosmos A Spacetime Odyssey Recap - Episode 101

Almost 34 years ago, renowned scientist Carl Sagan produced and hosted a groundbreaking television series called Cosmos: A Personal Journey that started at the Big Bang and explained how the world as we knew it came to be.  A lot more has been uncovered in the past three decades, so Fox Broadcasting Company has created an updated version of the show hosted by the brilliant and likable Neil deGrasse Tyson.  The 13 episode series will take us on a journey through space and time, while explaining the science, including evolution, of how the universe  has changed over the last 14 billion years.  Keep reading for a recap of the first episode entitled Standing Up in the Milky Way.   Episode 1 Recap - Standing Up in the Milky Way The first episode starts off with an introduction from President Barack Obama.  He gives tribute to Carl Sagan and the original version of this show and asks the audience to open our imagination. The first scene  of the show starts with a clip from the original series and host Neil deGrasse Tyson standing in the same place as Carl Sagan did nearly 34 years ago.  Tyson runs through a list of things we will learn about, including atoms, stars, and various life forms.  He also tells us that we will learn the story of â€Å"us†.  We will need imagination, he says, to take the journey. A nice touch is next, when he lays out the main principles of scientific research that everyone who contributed to these discoveries followed -- including questioning everything.  This leads to some stunning visual effects of the different scientific topics we will encounter throughout the series as the credits roll to a grand musical score. Tyson is on a spaceship to help guide us through the Cosmos.  We begin with a view of the Earth 250 million years ago and then it morphs into how it may look 250 years from now.  Then we leave Earth behind and travel across the Cosmos to learn Earths address within the Cosmos.  The first thing we see is the moon, which is barren of life and atmosphere.  Getting close to the Sun, Tyson tells us that it creates the wind and keeps our entire solar system in its gravitational clutches.   We speed past Mercury on the way to Venus with its greenhouse gases.  Skipping past Earth, we head to Mars that has as much land as Earth.  Dodging the asteroid belt between Mars and Jupiter, we finally make it to the largest planet.  It has more mass than all other planets combined and is like its own solar system with its four large moons and its centuries old hurricane that is more than three times the size of our entire planet.  Tyson’s ship pilots through the cold rings of Saturn and to Uranus and Neptune.  These far out planets  were discovered only after the invention of the telescope. Beyond the outermost planet, there is a whole slew of â€Å"frozen worlds†, which includes Pluto. The Voyager I spacecraft appears on screen and Tyson tells the audience it has a message for any future beings it may encounter and it includes music of the time it was launched.  This is the spacecraft that has traveled the farthest of any spacecraft we have launched from Earth. After a commercial break, Tyson introduces the Oort Cloud.  It is an enormous cloud of comets and pieces of debris from the origin of the universe.  It encases the entire solar system. There are so many planets in the solar system and many more than there are stars, even.  Most are hostile for life, but some may have water on them and could possibly sustain life of some form. We live about 30,000 light years from the center of the Milky Way Galaxy.  It is part of the â€Å"Local Group† of galaxies that include our neighbor,  the spiraling Andromeda Galaxy.  The Local Group is just a small part of the Virgo Supercluster.  On this scale, the tiniest dots are entire galaxies and then even this Supercluster is just a very small part of the Cosmos as a whole. There is a limit to how far we can see, so the Cosmos may just be the end of our sight for now. There very well may be a â€Å"multiverse† where there are universes everywhere we do not see because the light from those universes have not been able to reach us yet in the 13.8 billion years the Earth has been around. Tyson gives a little bit of history of how ancients believed Earth was the center of a very small universe where the planets and stars revolved around us.  It was not  until the 16th Century  that one man managed to imagine something much bigger, and he was in jail for these beliefs. The show comes back from commercial with Tyson relaying the story of Copernicus suggesting the Earth was not the center of the universe and how he was opposed by Martin Luther and other religious leaders of the time.  Next comes the story of Giordano Bruno, a Domincan Monk in Naples.  He wanted to know everything about God’s creation so he even read books that had been banned by the Church.  One of these forbidden books, written  by a Roman named Lucretius,  wanted the reader to imagine shooting an arrow off the â€Å"edge of the universe†.  It will either hit a boundary or shoot out into the universe infinitely.  Even if it hits a boundary, then you can stand at that boundary and shoot another arrow.  Either way,  the universe would be infinite.  Bruno thought it made sense that an infinite God would create an infinite universe and he began to talk about these beliefs.  It was not long before  he was cast out by the Church. Bruno had a dream he was trapped underneath a bowl of stars, but after summoning his courage, he flew out into the universe and he regarded this dream as his calling to teach the infinite universe idea along with his infinite God preachings.  This was not well received by religious leaders and he was excommunicated and opposed by intellectuals and the Church.  Even after this persecution, Bruno refused to keep his ideas to himself.    Back from commercial, Tyson begins the rest of Brunos story by telling the audience there was no such thing as separation of Church and State in that time.  Bruno returned to Italy despite the danger he was in with the Inquisition in full power during his time.  He  was caught and jailed for preaching his beliefs.  Even though he was interrogated and tortured for more than eight years, he refused to renounce his ideas.  He was found guilty of opposing God’s word and was told all of his writings would be gathered and burned in the town square.  Bruno still refused to repent and stayed firm in his beliefs.   An animated depiction of Bruno being burnt at the stake ends this story.  As an epilogue, Tyson tells us 10 years after Bruno’s death, Galileo proved him right by looking through a telescope.  Since Bruno was not a scientist and had no evidence to back up his claims, he paid with his life for ultimately being right. The next segment begins with Tyson having us imagine all of the time the Cosmos has existed is compressed to one calendar year.  The cosmic calendar begins January 1 when the universe begins. Every month is about a billion years and every day is about 40 million years.  The Big Bang was on January 1st of this calendar.   There is strong evidence for the Big Bang, including the amount of helium and the glow of radio waves.  As it expanded, the universe cooled and it was dark for 200 million years until gravity pulled stars together and heated them until they gave off light.  This happened on about January 10th of the cosmic calendar.  The galaxies started to appear around January 13th and the Milky Way started to form around March 15th of the cosmic year.   Our Sun had not been born at this time and it would take a supernova of a giant star to create the star we revolve around.  Insides of stars are so hot, they fuse atoms to make elements like carbon, oxygen, and iron.  The â€Å"star stuff† gets recycled and reused over and over to make everything in the universe.  August 31st is our Sun’s birthday on the cosmic calendar.  Earth was formed from debris coming together that was was orbiting the Sun.  The Earth took a great beating in the first billion years and the Moon was made from these collisions.  It was also 10 times closer than it is now, making the tides 1000 times higher.  Eventually, the Moon was pushed farther away. We are not  sure how life got started, but the first life was formed about September 31st on the cosmic calendar.  By November 9th, life was breathing, moving, eating, and responding to the environment.  December 17th is when the Cambrian Explosion happened and shortly thereafter, life moved to land.  The final week of December saw dinosaurs, birds, and flowering plants evolve.  The death of these ancient plants created our fossil fuels we’re using today.  On December 30th at about 6:34 AM, the asteroid that started the mass extinction of the dinosaurs hit the Earth.  Human ancestors only evolved in the last hour of December 31st.  All of recorded history is represented by the last 14 seconds of the cosmic calendar. We return after commercial and it is 9:45 pm on New Year’s Eve.  This is when time saw the first bipedal primates that could look up from the ground.  These ancestors were making tools, hunting and gathering, and naming things all within the last hour of the cosmic year.  At 11:59 on December 31st, the first paintings on cave walls would have appeared.  It is when Astronomy was invented and necessary to learn for survival.  Soon after, humans learned to cultivate plants, tame animals, and settle down rather than wander.  About 14 seconds until midnight on the cosmic calendar, writing was invented as a way to communicate.  As a point of reference, Tyson tells us Moses was born 7 seconds ago, Buddha 6 seconds ago, Jesus 5 seconds ago, Mohammed 3 seconds ago, and the two sides of the Earth only found each other 2 seconds ago on this cosmic calendar. The show ends with a tribute to the great Carl Sagan and his ability to communicate science to the public.  He was a pioneer for finding extraterrestrial life and space exploration and Tyson tells a personal anecdote of meeting Sagan when he was only 17 years old.  He was personally invited to Sagan’s lab and he was inspired to become not only a scientist, but a great person that reached out to help others understand science as well.  And now, here he is nearly 40 years later doing just that.

The Black Death How Different Were Christian and Muslim...

In 1346 European traders began to hear reports about earthquakes, floods, locusts, famine, and plague in faraway China. They knew very little then that the plague they were hearing about would follow the same trade routes to the Middle East, North Africa, and Europe that they themselves used. (doc. 1) In five short years, the plague killed between 25 and 45% of the populations it encountered. (doc 2) So how different were the Christian and Muslim responses? In 1348 Christianity and Islam came face to face with the Black Death. (doc. 3A) In truth, Muslims and Christians responded in many different ways. Their ideas for what caused the Black Death were somewhat different from each other also. Even the way they thought they could cure the†¦show more content†¦For the Muslims’ point of view Muhammad al-Manbiji stated that â€Å"†¦ a Muslim should devoutly accept the divine act.† The way Muslims wanted to cure the disease was to simply accept the fact that it w as there. They didn’t want to tamper with God but instead move on and continue their life. After a while of the plague not disappearing, a lot of people of different religions were starting to get desperate. Ibn Battuta wrote â€Å"The entire population of the city (of Damascus) joined†¦ (all) of them in tears†¦ imploring the favor of God through His Books and His Prophets.† (doc. 9) Finally, after not a lot was happening to keep the Black Death away, Muslims, Christians and Jews alike were getting together in order to find a way to cure themselves from the plague. Although they ended up getting together in order to see what would work, Muslims’ responses were still as a whole more peaceful and calm than that of the Christians. So how different were the Christian and Muslim Responses really? I myself think they were very different indeed in a way that the Muslims’ ideals were just a lot more peaceful than the Christians. The Muslims’ resp onse to the Bubonic Plague was to simply accept it other than try to prevent it like the Christians. Muslims thought the cause was a blessing from God while Christians though they were being punished. The Muslims had a more positive view on the whole thing. Even they way Muslims thought they could cure the Black Death was to just accept it andShow MoreRelatedBlack Death Dbq1206 Words   |  5 PagesMuslim and Christian DBQ From the depths of the Middle East during the Post-Classical period, two of the most powerful world religions emerged. Islam and Christianity, although sharing many similarities, also had their fair share of disagreements, one being their responses to the Black Death. The religion, demography, and interactions all contributed to the differentiation of Muslim and Christian reactions. Christians thought that the Black Death was sent from God as a punishment and blamed the